Critical Path Analysis

Critical Path Analysis INTRODUCTION: Planning, Scheduling and Controlling are three important functions of management. Planning involves the formulation of objectives and goals that are subsequently translated into Specific plans and projects. Scheduling is concerned about the implementation of activities necessary to achieve the laid down plans. The function of control is to institute a mechanism that can trigger a warning signal if actual performance is deviating (in terms of time, cost and some other measures of effectiveness) from the plan.If such a deviation is unacceptable to the concerned manager, he will be required to take corrective action to bring performance in conformity with the plans. The PERT and CPM models are extremely useful for the purpose of planning, scheduling and controlling the progress and completion of large and complex projects or for carrying out the analysis of these three managerial functions. Before we describe the basic concepts used in the constructi on and analysis of these models, let us first understand the meaning of a project. What is a project?A project can be defined as a set of large number of activities or jobs that are performed in a certain sequence determined logically or technologically and it has to be completed within (i) a specified time, (ii) a specified cost and (iii) meeting the performance standards. Examples of a project from fairly diverse fields are given below: 1. Introducing a new product in the market. 2. Construction of a new bridge over a river or construction of a 25 storied building, 3. Executing a large and complex order on jobbing production. 4. Sending a spacecraft to the mars. GENERAL FRAMEWORK OF PERT/CPMA network is a graphical representation of a project, depicting the flow as well as the sequence of well-defined activities and events. Developed during the 1950s, both CPM (Critical Path Method) and PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) are network techniques/models. The network app roach helps project managers in planning, Scheduling and controlling. As a planning tool it helps the manager to estimate the requirements of resources viz. , materials, equipment, manpower, cost and time for each activity or tasks of the project. This approach cannot make decisions by its own.It only provide additional information to executives to facilitate decision making process. Also it does not provide solution to every management problem. It certainly helps in identification of those activities, jobs or events which control the completion of the project. The working methodology of critical path analysis (CPA) which includes both CPM and PERT, consists of following five steps: 1. Analyse and break down the project in terms of specific activities and/ or events. 2. Determine the interdependence and sequence of specific activities and prepare a net work. . Assign estimates of time, cost or both to all the activities of the network. 4. Identify the longest or critical path throug h the network. 5. Monitor, evaluate and control the progress of the project by replanning, rescheduling and reassignment of resources. The central task in the control aspect of these models is to identify the longest path through the network. The longest path is the critical path because it equals the minimum time required to complete the project. All other paths other than the critical path (i. e. o critical or slack paths) offer flexibility in scheduling and transferring resources, because they take less time to complete than the critical path. ADVANTAGES OF CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS There are a number of advantages in using critical path analysis. 1. It allows for a comprehensive view of the entire project. Because of the sequential and concurrent relationships, time scheduling becomes very effective. Identifying the critical activities keeps the executive alert and in a state of preparedness, with alternative plans ready in case these are needed.Breaking down the project into small er components permits better and closer control. 2. Critical path analysis offers economical and effective system of control based on the principle of management by exception i. e. need for corrective action arises only in exceptional situations and in most of other cases, performance is in conformity with the plans. 3. It is a dynamic tool of management which calls for constant review, a reformulation of the network, and finding the current path of relevance and optimum resources allocation.FUNDAMENTALS OF A CPA NETWORK ( Activity An activity is any portion of a project which consumes time or resources and has a definable beginning and ending. For example, â€Å"laying of pipe† is an activity requiring the use of resource mainly effort. Activity may involve labour, paper work, contractual negotiations, machinery operations, etc. Commonly used terms synonymous with â€Å"activity† are â€Å"task† and â€Å"job†. Figure 1 and 2 Activities are graphically r epresented by arrows, usually with description and time estimates written along the arrows.The tail of the arrow portraying an activity represents the starting point of the activity and its head represents its completion. The arrow may be straight slanting, or bent but not broken (see figure-1). The arrow is not a vector and need not be drawn to scale. ( Events The beginning and ending points of an activity or a group of activities are called events. Synonyms of an event are â€Å"node† and â€Å"connectors† An event is often represented graphically by a numbered circle (see figure-2), although any geometric figure such as square, oval, rectangle etc. will serve the purpose.We shall, however, stick to the most commonly used convention for representing an event viz, the circle. A few examples of events are as follows : (i) Material procured, (ii) Design completed, (iii) Project started, (iv) Bricks laid, etc. All activities in a network must commence from some event. Su ch events are called the tail events because they are connected to the tail of an activity. These are shown in figure 3. Similarly, all activities in a network must have terminal points called the head event because it is at the head of an activity. These are shown in figure-4.Figure-5 depicts tail and head events connected by arrows representing activities i. e. it depicts the dual role of an event. Event 14 is the head event for one activity and tail event for another. In a network, symbol â€Å"i† is used for the tail event (also called preceding event) and â€Å"j† for the head event (or succeeding event) of an activity. The activity, then being I-j. If an event represents the joint completion of more than one activity, it is called a merge event. If an event represents the joint initiation of more than one activity, it is called a burst event.A network is, then, a graphical representation of a project plan, showing the inter-relationship of the various activities. Networks are also called arrow diagrams (see figure – 6). When the results of time estimates and computations have been added to a network, it may be used as a project schedule. Conventions adopted in drawing networks: There are two conventions normally adopted while drawing networks. In the early stages of network drawing, it is suggested that the conventions should be respected until sufficient experience has been gained to justify dropping them.These conventions are: a) Time flows from left to right. b) Head events always have a number higher than that of the tail events. The above stated conventions allow activities to be referred uniquely by their tail and head event numbers, so that â€Å"activity 3-4† means only â€Å"the activity which starts from event 3 proceeds to event 4†; it cannot mean â€Å"the activity which starts from event 4 and finishes event 3†. Graphical representation of events and activities: Events are represents by numbers withi n circles. Activities are represented by arrows, the arrow-heads represent the completion of the activities.The length and orientation of the arrow are of no significance whatsoever (chosen only for the convenience of drawing). The activity of leaving place A and walking to place B can equally well be represented by figure-7. Fundamental properties governing the representation of events and activities: The representation of events and activities is governed by one simple dependency rule which requires that an activity which depends upon another activity is shown to emerge from the head event of the activity upon which it depends and that only dependent activities are drawn in this way.Thus, if activity B depends upon activity A, then the two activities are drawn in figure-8. Figure 7 AB 1. An event cannot occur until all activities leading to it are complete. 2. No activity can start until its tail event in reached. The above two properties can be combined into a single one, namely that â€Å"no activity may start until all previous activity in the same chain are completed. Logical sequencing are connection of activities; A project entails several activities. The arrows are arranged to show the plan of logical sequence in which the activities of the project are to be accomplished.The sequence is ascertained for each activity by answering the following three quires viz: (i)Which activity or activities must be completed before the start of a particular activity ? (ii) Which activity or activities should follow this? (iii) Which activities can be accomplished simultaneously? The activity or activities which immediately come before another activity without any intervening activities are called predecessor activities to that activity. The activities which follow another activity without any intervening activities are called successor activities to that activity.In a project of laying a pipe line, the three activities involved may be trenching, laying pipe and weld ing pipe. To decide the logical connection between these three activities necessary that they be carried out in series, the reasoning being that the pipe cannot be laid until trenching has been done and welding cannot be undertaken until the pipe has been laid. This way we decide the logical sequencing between different activities. Errors in logical sequencing: Two types of errors in logic may arise while drawing a network, particularly when it is a complicated one. These are known as looping dangling. 1)Looping: Normally in a network, the arrow points from left to right. This convention is to be strictly adhered, as this would avoid illogical looping, as shown wrongly below : (2)Dangling: The situation represented by the following diagram is also at fault, since the activity represented by the dangling arrow 9-11 is undertaken with no result. A To overcome the problem arising due to dangling arrows, following rules may be adopted. (i) All events, except the first and the last, must have at least one activity entering and one activity leaving them, ii) All activities must start and finish with an event. (3)Duplicate activities: Consider the following figure 11: A XY B Figure 11 In the above figure, activities A and B may be called duplicate activities because they have same head event (i. e. 6) and the same tail event (i. e. 7). One remedy for such a situation is the introduction of a dummy activity (4) Dummy activity: It is a hypothetical activity which consumes no resource and time. It is represented by dotted lines and is inserted in the network to clarify activity pattern under the following situations: ) It is created to make activities with common starting and finishing events distinguishable. ii) To identify and maintain the proper precedence relationship between activities that are not connected by events. iii) To bring all â€Å"loose ends† to a single initial and a single terminal event in each network using dummies, if necessary. For example, problem of duplicate activities in the figure-11 above may be circumvented as shown in figure-12. A XY B Figure 12 Figure – 13 shows three cases for the following set of dependency relationships: Activity C is dependent upon both A and B.Activity D is dependent upon A alone. BC AC A DD BA C B AD The first portrayal (on top left of figure-13) is clearly wrong since it shows D as dependent upon not only A but also B which is not desired. The other portrayal (ii) is also wrong since A is being shown twice and thus contravenes the fundamental axiom of network that three must be one arrow for each activity. The way out to this dilemma is the representation by means of the dummy activity. In the third portrayal of figure -13, C is dependent upon both A and B (via dummy) whereas D is dependent upon just A.Numbering the events: The event numbers in a network should in some respect reflect their logical sequences. When a complicated network has been drawn then the problem of assignin g numbers to the events involved in the network arises. A rule devised by D. R. Fulkerson, involving the following steps may be followed to resolve the problem numbering the events. i) An â€Å"initial† event is one which has arrow/arrows coming out of it and none of the arrow entering it. In a network there will be only one such event. Call it â€Å"1†. (ii) Delete all arrows coming out from the event 1. This will give us at least one more â€Å"initial event†. i) Number these events as â€Å"2, 3†¦. † (iv) Delete all emerging arrows from these numbered events which will create new initial events. Then follow step (iii). (v) Continue the above steps till last event is obtained which has no arrows coming out of it. Consider the numbering of events in the following figure. Figure 14 F AFA BG B CH CG AF AF BG BG CH CH AF AF BG BG CH CH Figure 15 Here we proceed from left to right. The event with least x- co-ordinate is assigned the smallest integer, sa y 1. other events are assigned progressively higher integers with regard to x-co-ordinate.If two or more events (4 and 5 above) have the same x-co-ordinate, the one towards arrow should have higher number. Further, it is not necessary, and in fact also not desirable to number the events consecutively. It would be a better scheme to number the events as 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 in the above diagram instead of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. This affords insertion of more activities and events omitted by oversight or having become necessary in view of certain logic revisions. It was mentioned earlier that it is desirable that all the activity arrows point from left to right. If the arrow is vertical it may point downwards or upwards.For the sake of preventability it is to be recommended that activities emanating from one event or converging to another may make as great angles between themselves as possible. A few more conventions are given below: (i) Keep the arrow to the extreme right. (ii) A s far as possible avoid drawing arrows that cross each other. Usually by suitable ‘stretching’ the network diagram it is possible to avoid this. (iii) Where, however, crossing is unavoidable, bridging may be done. This applies to dummies as well. Draw boldly a big network. Smaller ones are confusing. Use of pencil and rubber is recommended.Exercise: Depict the following dependency relationships by means of network diagrams. The Alphabets stand for activities. 1. A & B control F; B and C control G. 2. A & B control F; B Controls G while C controls G and H. 3. A controls F and G; B controls G; while C controls G and H. 4. A controls F and G; B and C control G with H depending upon C. 5. F & G are controlled by A, G and H are controlled by B with H controlled by B and C. 6. A controls F, G and H; B controls G and H with H controlled by C. Answer: The required networks are given in figure -15 Exercise: Find out the superfluous (unnecessary) dummy activities in the network b elow. BEH C AF G D Figure 16 JKL M FG AB CDE H M IK Figure 14 Basic steps involved in drawing a CPM/PERT network : Network is defined as a diagram representing the activities and events of a project, their sequence and inter-relationships. The basic steps involved in drawing a network are: i) Breaking up of the entire project into smaller systems known as tasks. ii) For each tack ascertain the activities and events to be performed. iii) For each activity determine the preceding and succeeding activities. iv) For each activity determine or estimate the time and other resources needed. v) Draw a network depicting the assembly of tasks into a project.Network Construction Problem 1 The activities involved in the computer installation process are detailed below. You are required to draw the network. ActivityPredecessor Activities A. Physical preparationnone B. Organizational planningnone C. Personal SelectionB D. Equipment InstallationA E. Personal TrainingC F. Detailed systems designC G . File ConversionF H. Establish standards and controlsF I. Programme preparationH J. Programme TestingI K. Parallel operationsD, E, G, J. L. Finalize systems documentationI M. Follow upK, L B< C (ii) AA None < A None < B B B D C D A A < D (iii)C

Kranzer

Dear Sir:For the last 16 years I have taken on ever greater responsibility for nurse management at the University of Chicago hospitals.   Currently, I am director of their critical care departments and oversee both the pediatric and adult emergency departments.   Currently, I am responsible for continuing education and research activities for 350 FTEs and I love my job. But I have reached the pinnacle of my career with this hospital organization and would like to now move on to greater challenges and responsibilities.As you will note on the enclosed resume, in addition to 23 years progressively more responsible nursing and nursing oversight positions, I have recently begun work on my master of science in nursing. Eventually, I hope to educate other nurses and assist with progress in the field of nursing. But as much as I might enjoy teaching in the future, I also enjoy departmental management.You might well imagine that in my position in Chicago, I have seen a bit of everything. I have helped implement the sexual assault advocates program at the University of Chicago hospitals, planned budgets and hired staff. I have worked with staffing agencies to maintain needed nursing levels while staying within budget. I have helped the university of Chicago hospitals to achieve and maintain quality patient care.My experience is broad-based and extensive, making me the perfect addition to your staff.   I look forward to the opportunity to meet with you and discuss my vision for your hospital.   Thank you for your time an consideration.Sincerely,  Susan French Kranzer

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Nashville International Airport (BNA) Research Paper

Nashville International Airport (BNA) - Research Paper Example Though the airport was initially built on just 337 acres of land, the airport has since acquired adjacent land for expansion. Finch (2009) reveals that the airport currently sits on more than 4,500 acres of land. Finch (2009) reports that, apart from the acquisition of more land for expansion, the airport has also undergone a series of renovation, which has transformed it be one of the safest airports to board a plane. For instance, the airport has four runways, which are long enough to handle all types of aircrafts. The longest runway measures about 3,360 meters, which meets the RSA standards for handling all kinds of aircrafts. Finch (2009) noted that Nashville International Airport (BNA) currently handles a very large number of travelers and cargo. Finch (2009) reveals that BNA has 12 airlines that serve the various cities in North America and beyond. The airport is reported to be witnessing about 400 arrivals and departure daily. Finch (2009) reveals that about 8 million passenge rs currently fly either from or into the airport. For instance, it is reported that about 4.67 million passengers boarded flights on Nashville International Airport (BNA) in 2011. The airport also handled more than 84,000 tons of cargo in the same year. Currently Nashville International Airport (BNA) ranks 34th-busiest passenger airport in the U.S. ... As earlier indicated, Nashville International Airport (BNA) handles about 7 million passengers each year which is more than 1% of Americas total passenger boarding’s, according to Surhone, Timpledon and Marseken (2010). Nashville International Airport (BNA) recognizes the fact that the airport serves even the physically challenged. As a result, the airport has elevators and ramps used by these passengers for alighting and boarding the plane. The airport also has an ample parking bay for vehicles with handicap license plates. In this regard, it is a requirement that each airline makes its own arrangement for assisting the physically challenged to get to and from the plane. In addition to the parking lot for the physically challenged, the airport also has a packing bay for all provided free of charge as long as the vehicle is not packed for more than 30 minutes. Moreover, there is also a short-vehicle servicing garage for passengers who travel via the airport (Romine, 2012). Nas hville International Airport (BNA) also has many entertainment facilities at the airport that ensures that its passengers are not left the board while waiting their flights. Finch (2009) reveals that the airport has some of the several hotels and restaurants at the terminus where passengers can enjoy their meals. The hotels and restaurants serve a variety of meals and drinks to passengers at affordable prices. In addition, the airport also features live bands on a daily basis ranging from jazz to county music (Surhone, Timpledon, and Marseken, 2010). The terminus of the airport is also well illuminated by skylights designed by Robert Lamb Hart, the famous New York architect. This contributes to the general atmosphere of accessibility and openness. Security is also beefed up at the

Assumptions and Fallacies Essay Example for Free

Assumptions and Fallacies Essay †¢ What are assumptions? How do you think assumptions might interfere with critical thinking? What might you do to avoid making assumptions in your thinking? Assumption is an idea one believes to be true based on prior experience or ones belief systems. (Elder Paul, 2002) Assumptions are a part of our belief system but we don’t know that they are true or not. Assumptions are a vital part of our critical thinking. If we used assumptions all the time then we would not be able to use critical thinking. It doesn’t matter where we are at, it is imperative to know all the facts prior to drawing any kind of conclusion or it becomes an assumption. It may be difficult at times to utilize critical thinking but by keeping an open minded aspect will help to prevent assumptions. There is nothing worse than making an assumption and then to be confronted by someone who has all the facts can shatter your confidence. You can avoid this by researching all the facts and utilizing your critical thinking abilities to cover every corner and aspect of your idea or topic. This is the key to keep from making assumptions. †¢ What are fallacies? How are fallacies used in written, oral, and visual arguments? What might you do to avoid fallacies in your thinking? Fallacies are deceptive or misleading arguments that are untrue or unreliable. Fallacies are mainly used to help support a person’s argument when they can’t find factual evidence to back up their statements. Fallacies can be used in many different ways. They are used on purpose in fictional writing and magazines like People. Fallacies can be orally used by someone when they are telling a firsthand story but are only versed in their side so it may come off as unintentional. I see fallacies being mostly used visually popliteal ads and propaganda media campaigns. They get away with most of these fallacies because the amount of time it takes to research the truth usually takes too long before the psychological damage is already done on the public. People tend to trust what others say unless they have found previous fallacies in their statements. I avoid believing fallacies by being conservative in my thoughts. If I see something that I might consider to be fallacious by my past experiences then I do the research to find out the facts. Fallacies and assumptions hold the same key as research will reveal them all.

Methods Of Categorising Diseases

Methods Of Categorising Diseases Introduction At the beginning of my written assignment I have been asked to do a research about communicable and non- communicable disease and to choose one communicable and one non-communicable disease by explaining the similarities and the difference between both. My chosen diseases are malaria which is communicable and skin cancer which is non-communicable disease. However my rationale for choosing malaria is because malaria affects many people in the UK and around the world. Malaria occurs where the Anopheles mosquito breeds, mainly in rural tropical areas. From a UK perspective, its a threat to people travelling to malarial regions in Africa. Asia, the Middle East, central and southern America. Also my rational of skin cancer is because skin cancer affects many people in the UK and around the world. This means that skin cancer has become more prevalent in many parts of the world because people are spending more time in the Sun and are exposing more of their skin in the process. For example Australia, with high sunshine levels, has very high skin cancer rates. An estimated 2 out of every 3 people in most parts of the country will develop some form of skin cancer. Definition of health, Health is seen as a resource for everyday life and not just the objective of living also it is a positive concept emphasising social and personal recourses, as well as physical capabilities. Definition of disease, Disease is abnormal state of the body and mind that causes discomfort or distress to the person affected or those in contact with the person. For example the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, syndromes, symptoms, deviant behaviours, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories. Different methods of categorising diseases, including: Physical diseases or illness are those which affect the functioning of parts of the human body, for example physical diseases are;Â   Coronary heart disease Bronchitis Nephritis Arthritis Psychological disease, more usually thought of as mental health disorder and those affect mind or intellect. The include; Depression Anxiety disorder Bipolar disorder Social disease, or conditions associated with personal lifestyle choices and the environment disorders are those that raise from social deprivation also relationships those which have their roots in our personal activities, such as; Alcoholism Substance abuse Sexually transmitted disease Similarly, alcoholism effects and depression and bulimia can be seen as having foundations in modern society. Although the other way of classifying disease is simply into communicable and non communicable diseases. Also in order to prevent communicable disease this is necessary to closely investigate all the factors contributing to the infection and its spread. The similarities and the different between communicable and non communicable are; both are a form of disease and communicable diseases are caused by micro-organisms such as, viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. However communicable disease is not caused by factors, but some factors may influence the outcome and spread of a communicable disease for example, tuberculosis is more prevalence in poor living conditions and influenza speeds quickly in overcrowded situations. Non communicable disease may caused by explained tissue deterioration, defiency of a matter essential for health, inherited genes also lifestyle choices or the environmental effect. Spread of disease Communicable disease spread from one organism to another, this means that it usually from human to human. Although Non communicable diseases do not spread from one person to another. Life stage of effected individual; Communicable disease can generally affect people at any life stage. As many infections result in immunity of a range of lengths. This means that the individual is never invaded by the micro-organisms again, but rather that full-blown disease which never develops because the body defence rapidly overcome the infection. For example some infections have a greater impact at specific the life stage such as infancy and childhood, a (Measles and Diphtheria). Non communicable diseases are often linked with specific life stages for example Alzheimers disease and osteoarthritis are also linked with adulthood and CF and haemophilia with infancy and childhood. The similarities and the difference between communicable and non-communicable disease Communicable diseases are highly infectious and can be transmitted to other individuals through different modes like close physical contact, touching the things an infected person touched, Non-communicable diseases cannot be transmitted by the aforementioned modes but are inherited, triggered, or developed through nutritional deficiencies and other causes. The symptoms are measurable and obvious. Some of the most usual symptoms of communicable diseases include: The symptoms would depend on the kind of infection a person is dealing with. Non-communicable disease includes; Muscle aches, headaches, fever, cough and chills Obesity, diabetes, skin cancer, Gaining of excess weight, unexplained excessive hunger and thirst For sexually transmitted infections, the symptoms include smelly discharge, greenish or grayish discharge, ulcers in the genital areas, Lesions located in the sexual organ and different areas of the body especially when the infection has already spread and transferred to other body parts. Hypertension. Blood pressure that reaches up to 140/90, most commonly, hypertension has no obvious signs and symptoms that are why it called Å“silent killer. Communicable disease can be spread from person to person, either through skin to skin contact or through contaminated materials. There are many types of communicable diseases, with varying symptoms. Do not always require long term support and treatment Could occur at any age, though the impact of the disease may differ in each life stage and transmitted in a range of different ways. But the main communicable disease I have chosen is malaria. What is malaria? Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite, which infects red blood cells. Malaria is characterized by cycles of chills, fever, pain, and sweating. Historical records suggest malaria has infected humans since the beginning of mankind. Key facts Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected mosquitoes. Malaria caused nearly one million deaths, mostly among African children and its preventable and curable. Although malaria can decrease gross domestic product by as much as 1.3% in countries with high disease rates. Non-immune travellers from malaria-free areas are very vulnerable to the disease when they get infected. What are the signs and symptoms of malaria? People with malaria typically have cycles of chills, fever, and sweating that recurs every 1, 2, or 3 days. The attack of the malaria parasites on the persons red blood cells makes the persons temperature rise and the person feel hot. The subsequent bursting of red blood cells makes the person feel cold and have hard, shaking chills. Nausea, vomiting, Diarrhea often goes along with the fever. The destruction of red blood cells can also cause jaundice (yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes) and anaemia. How soon after exposure do symptoms appear? The time between a mosquito bite and the start of illness is usually 7 to 21 days, but some types of malaria parasites take much longer to cause symptoms. When infection occurs by blood transfusion, the time to the start of symptoms depends on the number of parasites in the transfusion. Causes It? Malaria is caused by any one of four species of one-celled parasites, called Plasmodium. The parasite is spread to people by the female Anopheles mosquito, which feeds on human blood. Although four species of malaria parasites can infect humans and cause illness, only malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is potentially life-threatening. How is malaria spread? Malaria is spread when an infected Anopheles mosquito bites a person. This is the only type of mosquito that can spread malaria. The mosquito becomes infected by biting an infected person and drawing blood that contains the parasite. When that mosquito bites another person, that person becomes infected. For example in the world, people who develop malaria are nearly always found to have contracted it while travelling in parts of the world where malaria is common. Non-communicable disease is disease that is caused by something other than a pathogen. Heart disease is an example of a no communicable disease. It might result from hereditary factors, improper diet, smoking, or other factors. Although most non-communicable diseases are chronic diseases, which means they are present either continuously off and on over a long time. A person may be born with the disease or a propensity to develop it. The disease may develop as a result of a persons lifestyle behaviours Usually require long-term support and treatment Are often linked with different life stage But the main non-communication disease I have chosen is lung cancer What is skin cancer? Skin cancer is a malignant growth on the skin which can have many causes. Although skin cancer is always one of the easiest forms of the disease to treat, the effectiveness of those treatments depends on how early the disease is caught. Skin cancer treatments can be less radical when the cancer is only in its early stages. How does it affect the body? The effects of skin cancer can vary; basal cell carcinoma is the most common form of skin cancer and it will often look like a mark on the skin that could be brown or red. Although it may be raised from the skin or flat to begin with. It generally doesnt spread and is considered to be a benign cancer. It can appear anywhere on the body but mainly on areas that are directly exposed to the sunlight. For example skin cancer can be incredibly damaging to anyone however, especially if it is left without being seen and untreated for an extended period of time. This is because the longer skin cancer or any type of cancer for that matter is left untreated, the longer it is able to negatively affect the body and possibly spread to other parts of the body as well. What are the symptoms? Spot or sore that does not heal within 4 weeks A spot or sore that continues to itch, hurt, scab, crust or bleed for more than 4 weeks Areas where the skin has broken down or forms an ulcer with no obvious cause, and does not heal within 4 weeks. What causes skin cancer? Sun exposure is the main cause of malignant melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. Other factors that influence the risk of skin cancer are: People with light eyes or hair, who sunburn easily or do not tan, have an increased risk of skin cancer. People with a lot of moles, unusually shaped or large moles, or a lot of freckles have a higher risk of melanoma. A history of sunburn doubles the risk of melanoma and also increases the risk of non-melanoma skin cancer. Use of sun beds, especially by young people, increases the risk of skin cancer. People with a previous non-melanoma skin cancer have a much higher risk of developing a second one. People with a close relative diagnosed with skin cancer have a higher risk of developing it themselves. Comparison of both diseases Disease Causative Organism Type of illness Malaria Plasmodium Serious disease affecting organs and high fever Skin cancer epidermis The skin cancer is only in the top layer of skin Malaria Every year between 350 and 500 million people are infected with the disease and 1 million die (predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa). Malaria affects many organs of peoples body. It can affect their brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, and liver, along with harsh side effects. The spleen and the liver enlarge. Malaria can affect many organs in the body, including the brain, lungs, kidneys, and liver. Skin cancer More than 3.5 million skin cancers in over two million people are diagnosed annually. Skin affects many organs peoples body. It can affect their brain, bone and lung; due to spread of the cancer cells through the blood Malaria Malaria is spread from person to person by ( bits from) a mosquito-specifically Anopheles, and in African one main species; anopheles gambiae Malaria is a topical disease, affecting 300 million people and causing 1-15.5million death per year, although such estimates vary. As a global killer it is second only to TB (tuberculosis). Its especially dangerous to young children and pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa. Skin cancer Skin cancer never spread, apart from the slow growth of the rodent ulcer itself. Even in advanced cases, treatment is almost always successful. Skin cancer is a disease, in which abnormal and potentially cancerous cells are found on the outer layers of the skin. The skin is the largest organ in the body.Many parasites have life-cycles involving two hot species, within which they pass through a range of different stages, often blinking between using asexual processes in order to build up numbers when conditions are appropriate and using sexual processes in other stages. This means that when person is bitten by a mosquito, parasites enter the blood and move to the liver where they multiply over the next one to three weeks. They are then released back into the bloodstream where they infect red blood cells. The parasites grow in the red blood cells until ready for the next stage of their life cycle. They then cause the host cells to rupture, releasing toxins which can cause malaria symptoms and failure of body mechanisms. Male and female gametes are released into the bloodstream where will be sucked up by the next mosquito to bite. Malaria is a major killer and deserves respect. Each year between 350 and 500 million people are infected with the disease and 1 million die predominantly in sub-Saharan Africa. This means that many travellers ignore the need to take anti-malarial medication or fail to take it properly. Of 80 million travellers to areas with a high malaria risk, 30,000 will contract the disease and many remain ignorant of the severity of malaria symptoms and malaria causes. Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the UK and United States also around the world. More than 3.5 million skin cancers in over two million people are diagnosed annually. Although each year there are more new cases of skin cancer than the combined incidence of cancers of the breast, prostate, lung and colon. However one in five Americans will develop skin cancer in the course of a lifetime. Over the past 31 years, more people have had skin cancer than all other cancers combined.4 Nearly 800,000 Americans are living with a history of melanoma and 13 million are living with a history of no melanoma skin cancer, typically diagnosed as basal cell carcinoma or squalors cell carcinoma What is diagnosis? Medical diagnosis refers both to the process of attempting to determine and/or identity a possible disease or disorder and the opinion reached by this process. For example; the term diagnostic criterion designates the combination of signs, symptoms, and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis. What is clinical diagnosis? Clinical diagnosis is occurs when an individual usually a doctor or another health care workers is able to establish the nature of disease mainly by giving the condition a name, such ad meningitis, What is differential diagnosis? The differential diagnosis are a few conditions which may appears to a similar and the doctor cannot provide a cline diagnosis he or she may unable to distinguish one from the other. This means that consists of a more generic label or name, for example chest infection or kidney infections. Type of diagnosis and referrals: Self diagnosis, is when individuals diagnose an illness for themselves, such as headache, pain or sort throat, individuals may be masking more serious illness by treating the condition with over the counter medications. Unless the individuals contact local health services, investigations will not be carried out and support will not offered. For example in some circumstances may have serious consequences and a correct treatment diagnosis will be made too late for correct treatment and support Although self diagnosis and treatment of minor ailments will release more time for doctors, or laboratory technicians and support personnel devote to individuals suffering from more serious complains. GP diagnosis, means when an individual feels that he or she is unable to deal with a health problem, an appointment is made with GP or practice nurse in the local health centre. Most service users expect to get a diagnosis and medication as a consequence of this visit. Also the appointment can be subject to one or two days delay when the matter is not deemed to be urgent. For example GP may refer a patient to a hospital for a variety of reasons. Some of these are; When a patient has a serious non communicable disease that needs specialist care, such as heart and renal failure, cancers and some inherited disease, When a patient is ill and has nobody at home to act as care. Also if patient has serious infection, such as tuberculosis or malaria, requiring specialist care and treatment For more detailed investigations such as X-rays, scans, ultrasound scans, electrocardiograms, special laboratory investigation to test about the disease. Also for closer monitoring and care. Referral to hospital for specialist treatment. There are many common conditions which can be diagnosed and treated by the affect individuals without the need for appointments with the family doctor or hospital visits. For example there are more over the counter preparations for treating common illness and service users may use NHS direct or internet to assist them with a diagnosis and treatment. Methods of diagnosing disease can be a different type of diagnoses those includes are many more specialised investigative techniques that can used if diagnosis may never be reached and the patients gradually recovers, probably due to an immune response. Facilities to support individuals with disease as well as the key medical personnel in general practice and hospitals, although there are many other agencies that provide support to individuals, and particularly those people with non communicable disease may need long term support. As support may be of the self help type because where information is or to provide information. For example some agencies aim to improve the equality of life by the provision of social activities, including fund- raising events and outings. Usually assistance with every day living task may be too provided by groups, such as social services. Support from domestic care this may involves with family, relative and friends there are also people employed by other agencies, which will support people with illness such as malaria and skin cancer. Patients can be tested by their doctor who may do blood test and when testing for malaria is done the test results can be influenced by the duration of the illness the concentration of malaria parasites in the blood as well as the expertise of the lab technician and the methodology used in the test procedure. Although anti-malarial drugs are not a 100% guarantee in preventing the disease, but it does help if the patients are infected by malaria and a milder and less severe infection is experienced. A local legend states that taking anti-malarial drugs hide the symptoms of malaria, but this is simply a myth. Types of tests to determine malaria infections Home testing with a test kit Laboratory testing Other tests that could assist when malaria infection is suspected General information Patients can be tested by their doctor who may remove a small sample of suspicious-looking skin for laboratory testing. An examination of tissue from a living body to determine the cause can determine whether person have skin cancer and, if so, what type of skin cancer they have. Although the determining the extent of the skin cancer if patients doctor determines they have skin cancer, he or she may recommend additional tests to determine the extent, or stage, of the skin cancer. Because superficial skin cancers such as basal or squamous cell carcinoma rarely spread, an examination often is the only test needed to determine the cancer stage. But if person have a large growth or one thats existed for some time, their doctor may recommend further tests to determine the extent of the cancer Skin cancer is generally divided into two stages: Local. In this stage, cancer affects only the skin. Metastatic. At this point, cancer has spread beyond the skin. The skin cancers stage helps determine which treatment options will be most effective. The impact of my two chosen diseases on society and the individuals are; Malaria is one of the most severe public health problems worldwide. It is a leading cause of death and disease in many developing countries, where young children and pregnant women are the groups most affected. 3.3 billion people (half the worlds population) live in areas at risk of malaria transmission in 109 countries and territories 35 countries (30 in sub-Saharan Africa and 5 in Asia) account for 98% of global malaria deaths. In 2008, malaria caused an estimated 190 311 million clinical episodes, and 708,000 1,003,000 deaths. 89% of the malaria deaths worldwide occur in Africa. Malaria is the 5th cause of death from infectious diseases worldwide (after respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, and tuberculosis) in low-income countries. Malaria is the 2nd leading cause of death from infectious diseases in Africa, after HIV/AIDS Malaria imposes substantial costs to both individuals and governments. This means the costs to individuals and their families include: Purchase of drugs for treating malaria at home; Expenses for travel to, and treatment at, dispensaries and clinics; Lost days of work; absence from school; Expenses for preventive measures; Expenses for burial in case of deaths. Costs to governments include: the act of maintaining of health facilities; purchase of drugs and supplies; public health interventions against malaria, such as insecticide spraying or distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets; lost days of work with resulting loss of income; and lost opportunities for joint economic ventures and tourism. Skin Cancer affects millions of UK and around the world because is ranked as one of the top ten deadly cancers. Unlike many other cancers, the number of new cases continues to increase, as does its impact on younger patients. UV radiation is a known factor in skin cancer development and the most effective method of lowering ones risk is to prevent unnecessary exposure, such as use of tanning beds. One in five UK and the around the world will develop skin cancer in their lifetime. The incidence of melanoma, the deadliest kind of skin cancer, has been steadily increasing for the past 30 years. Since 1992, melanoma has increased 3.1% annually in non-Hispanic Caucasians, but in recent years is increasing more rapidly in young white women (3.8% since 1995) and men age 65 and older (8.8% since 2003). Melanoma is the most common form of cancer for young adults 25-29 years old and the second most common form of cancer for adolescents and young adults 15-29 years old. Comparison of skin cancer and malaria about the diagnosis and impact The diagnosis and the impact of both diseases are very common because Skin cancer is one of the main cancer concerns of the world when the area is very warming. This means that people with skin cancer get most is melanoma. Although the most curable which can even be prevented. Early discovery is very important. If person have moles that are bothering them or are doing weird things such as changing size, shape, colour, or if they bleed constantly, they should consult a doctor. Malaria is a disease that will increase when the area is very warming. It is one of the earliest recorded human diseases, and is spread by the bite of a female mosquito. Mosquitoes breed in warm, wet places. With the increase of rain and warmth during the warming, the population of mosquitoes will increase, making the risk of getting this disease also increase when people are bitten by an infected mosquito, it sends parasites into their bloodstream. These parasites keep reproducing, making the disease more devastating. Symptoms are fever and chills that come and go, headache, weakness, and an enlarged spleen. An enlarged spleen could rupture, or require surgery to remove. People can live without a spleen, but not having one increases the risk of infections or other problems. Tests and diagnosis Tests and diagnosis To diagnose malaria, the individuals doctor may: To diagnose skin cancer, the individuals doctor may: Examine their blood tests can help tailor treatment by determining: Examine their skin. Their doctor may look at their skin to determine whether their skin changes are likely to be skin cancer. Further testing may be needed to confirm that diagnosis. Whether they have malaria and which type of malaria parasite is causing their symptoms Local. In this stage, cancer affects only the skin. If they infection is caused by a parasite resistant to certain drugs or whether the disease is affecting any of their vital organs Metastatic. At this point, cancer has spread beyond the skin. Some blood tests can take several days to complete, while others can produce results in less than 15 minutes. The skin cancers stage helps determine which treatment options will be most effective.

Invertebrates In Soil Ecosystem Analysis

Invertebrates In Soil Ecosystem Analysis Invertebrates are the first animal evolved about 600 million years ago from single-celled microorganism, food eating microorganism. They evolved into countless forms and lead to the enormous diversity of invertebrates species that are found today. They are organism without backbone, however they have others way to produce structural support of bodies. As examples, leeches have a hydrostatic skeleton supported by sheets of muscles and internal cavity filled with fluid, while insects have a hard outer shell or exoskeleton. Scientist divided them into about 30 different groups (phyla). The phyla include echinoderms (urchins and stars), coelenterates (jellies and anemones), annelids (segmented worms), mollusks (snails and octopuses), and arthropods (insects, spiders, arachnida such as spiders and crustaceans such as crabs) (Saint Louis Zoo, 2011). There are several kinds of phyla can be referred in Figure 1. Some of them are aquatic animal and terrestrial animal, yet this paper will focu s on diversity of invertebrates in soil ecosystem only. They participate in tropic level and play vital role in nutrient cycling and decomposition of organic matter. They also interact with others organism and provide many services to the ecosystem. A small decrease in an invertebrate biodiversity may affect ecosystem as they contribute to the succession of above ground and ecosystem. Human activities which give negative effects to the soil invertebrate activities must be controlled. In meanwhile, there are also some practices can be implemented to the site/soil to eager their activities. Classification of Invertebrates An experiment was carried out by several groups of Nottingham students to study the diversity of invertebrates using soil palm sample. The table below indicates the result of my group. There are 9 kinds of animal invertebrates that have been found in the soil sample: The Invertebrates Found In Soil Palm Sample Based on the result, all the invertebrates are from phylum of arthropod. The invertebrates are diverse and made up from difference classes and orders. There are 3 kinds of classes which are Insecta, Arachnida and Myriapoda. Class Insecta give the largest percentage (64%), followed by class Myripoda (20%) and the lowest percentage is class Arachnida (16%). None of them comes from the similar order. There are only few organisms were found out. The total number soil invertebrates are 25. This happened because of several unknown factors such as less moisture. The soil sample looks like dry and non-sticky, therefore may proved that the moisture level is low and not really favor the soil invertebrates. However, more experiments should be done to determine the real factors the number of invertebrates are little. Next, the researchers have classified the diversity of invertebrates according to body width. There are microfauna, mesofauna and macrofauna. Microfauna such as nematodes usually live in water film and have width 0.1mm and below; mesofauna such as mites and springtails live in air spaces and have body width between 0.1mm to 2mm, while macrofauna such as earwigs, centipedes, and millipedes have width from 2mm to 60mm and above. Macrofauna are large enough and have ability create space by burrowing. (http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu, 2011). They exist at any stages of soil which contain appropriate space and nutrients such as in litter, on/between the surface of soil aggregates, on humus and around roots. Invertebrates that graze on bacteria such as mites always concentrate around roots while the litter is always inhibited by collembola and millipedes that break up the litter into smaller chunks (Ingham, 2011). The types of invertebrates are similar in all ground cover types, but the number s of invertebrates differs significantly. Bare soil show the lowest number of invertebrates due to it is easily exposed to the extreme temperature, drain drop and soil erosion (Kyle and Susan, 2007). Soil invertebrates inhabit a substrate that is more resistant to drought than most terrestrial habitat. Some of them are capable adapted to acidic, however many more organisms thrive in a neutral habitat causing an increase in diversity as pH approaches neutral (Rudd, 2009). Soil invertebrates present at several trophic levels of the soil food web as primary, secondary or tertiary consumers. They eat almost everything either live or death organism. They exist in multitude of ways in gaining nutrient. They may present as herbivores, carnivores, scavengers and parasites. As examples, herbivores like caterpillar and nematodes are feeds on plants. Nevertheless, nematodes are complex organisms which appear at several stages of tropic level. Some nematodes feed on the plants and algae (primary consumers); others are grazers that feed on bacteria and fungi (secondary consumers); and some feed on other nematodes (tertiary consumers) (Ingham, 2011). Next, carnivore can be represented by centipedes which feed earthworms by paralyzing their prey with poisoned fang and spider which traps their prey with web. The example of scavengers is millipedes, louse and earwigs which decompose plant matter such as leaf little and dead roots (Dr Alderson, 2011). Most of inverteb rates in soil are parasites. Ticks, tapeworms, leeches, mites and roundworms are just a few examples of the parasites. Some parasites live on the external surfaces of the hosts while the others live in the digestive tract or tissues of their hosts (Klappenbach, 2011). Next, soil invertebrates develop multiple interactions at large scale and contribute to the production of soil ecosystem services in many ways (Figure 3). The Advantages of Invertebrates Interact with Ecosystem Firstly, soil invertebrates participate in nutrient cycling as it interact with surface vegetation which supplies them the organic maters or compounds. Scavengers like millipedes and mites will return those elements into a broken down form. These broken forms will be recycling back into the environment, promoting humification and nourishing the plant with the nutrients like nitrogen and carbon. Soil invertebrates are responsible for the mineralization and immobilization of phosphorus and sulphur into the plants. They attribute regulation of leaching nutrients losses and prevent leakage towards low-lying aquifers, streams and oceans (Lavellea et.al, 2006). Soil invertebrates act as buffering system that allows an efficient local recycling of nutrients Next, invertebrates like ants, termites, earthworms help in formation of soil. They consume small aggregates of mineral particles and organic matter and then generate larger fecal pellets. These fecal pellets are coated with compounds from the gut and become part of soil structure. Charles Darwin has stated that soil invertebrates, earthworm can carry large quantity of soil from the lower strata to the surface and organic matter into deeper soil layers. This organism can form over the top 15 cm of soil within 10-20 years. It helps to hold the soil particle together and maintain it structures too (Clive, 2011). Invertebrates interact with plants as they support primary production such as genes and protection against pests and diseases for plant health and response to stress. The expert document that the expression in the leaves of three stress-responsive genes (coding for lipoxygenase, phospholipase D and cysteine protease) due to the existence of belowground invertebrate activities. However, they still cannot identity the mechanism involved which affects parasitic nematodes activity and arise beneficial in earthworms. Next, many experiments have shown significant enhancement of plant production in the presence of soil invertebrates such as collembolan, earthworms and combinations of organism termites and ants. Invertebrates capable improve tolerance to stressors or pest such as parasitic nematodes which feed on plant roots. This has been proved since 82% infested plant decrease within the presence of earthworms. Although earthworms do not affect the population size of nematodes, it causes the root biomass not being attacked by such parasite (Manuel et al, 2005). Besides, the soil invertebrates interact with carbon compound in climate regulation and also with soil for flood and erosion control. The soil invertebrates accumulate over long period of time and form humification. This process results the carbon compounds are sequestered into compact and consequently the carbons can be avoided from rapidly released into atmosphere in the form green house gases. Humification also transforms carbon compounds more resistance to further decomposition and thus slower green house gas released from soil (Lavellea et.al, 2006). Next, flood and erosion control can be regulated by building and maintenance of stable porosity through bioturbation and burrowing. Earthworms burrow, enhance soil aeration and form tunnel. This tunnel can absorb water at a rate 4 to 10 times greater than fields lacking worm (NCAT, 2004). Lastly, soil invertebrates do interaction with ecosystem as they are also responsible in production of water supply. Their participation may be in small-scale but are significant. Invertebrates such as millipedes in macrofauna create burrows and structural porosity in soils and thus generate water infiltrations. The variety of pore shapes and size may permit soils to store water within wide range, but the scientist not discovered yet about the amount of water infiltrated and stored (Lavellea et.al, 2006). Invertebrates are necessary to reduce water runoff, recharge groundwater and store large amount of water for dry spells. Soil invertebrates serve many benefits to plant, animal, and nature. Their present should not be disturbed by human activities because it may influence the presence and activity of organism. Unfortunately, the burgeoning human populations have destroyed the soil physico-chemical environment and the soils species through activities such as: inputs of chemicals, disposal of waste products in soils and physical modification or removal of soil by cultivation and erosion (Diana, 1994). Those activities may eliminate any invertebrates present on the topsoil and degrade their microenvironment. In addition, the metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods will be altered and this may destroy some layers of the primary food chain too. This happens when harmful chemicals have been passed up to the food chain and ultimately causes mortality or even extinction in the invertebrates. There are several site/soil management can be practiced to help improving invertebrates number and activities such as enhance nutrient and pest. Organic matter and nutrients in acceptable range can provide more foods to the invertebrates, though they may poison the organism in excess. This is similar to pest which is helpful for invertebrates to resist to pesticide in acceptable range only. Next, people must avoid excess tillage because it can bring advantages or conversely. Some farmers practice tillage because it can control pests, however it also affects decomposition rate of soil invertebrate when excess. The worst is it can reduce organic matter level to below 1% and renders them biologically dead. People also should keep the soil covered to avoid soil erosion that influence the existence of invertebrates at the topsoil especially. It can be done by covered it with plant residue or planting crops. Lastly, diversity cropping is beneficial because it also will increase the diversi ty of invertebrates. This happen due to differ plant have differ culture practice and thus leads to decrease of disease pressure. All the practices support the invertebrates to survive greater and functions more effectively (USDA, 2011). In conclusion, there are vast diversity of invertebrates can be found in earth including soil invertebrates. Their size are small which is may be less than 1mm but their interaction with nature bring much benefits to ecosystem. Their existence should not be bothered and people must conserve these species to avoid extinction via soil conservation. Soil conservation can promote better the viability and survivor of soil organisms including soil invertebrates. Loss of invertebrates diversity may affects soil processes and unstable ecosystem too as they are responsible in nutrient cycling, water supply and many more. People can manage the site/soil to improve the population of invertebrates by providing nutrients, pest and others to enhance invertebrates activities.

The Education of Charles Dickens :: Biography Biographies Essays

The Education of Charles Dickens      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1812, when John and Elizabeth Dickens admired their newborn, Charles, they had no idea how his educational pursuits would lead him to immortality in the literary world. John Dickens hoped his son would grow up to be a "learned and distinguished gentleman" (Ackroyd 78). He passed this aspiration on to his son who kept it true to his heart. To Charles Dickens, education was the means by which he would reach this goal that had been deeply embedded in him as a child. Unfortunately, the educational offerings of early nineteenth century England were sparse and inadequate. His educational pursuits left him frustrated and unfulfilled. But Dickens' determination didn't let him give up his dreams. With no other alternatives available to him, he educated himself.    Formal schooling began at the age of nine for Charles. His first encounter with Victorian education was at the Rome Dame School in Chatham. He and his sister, Fanny, received a typical Dame school education, which amounted to less than what Elizabeth Dickens had already taught them. His parents quickly pulled their children out of this institution and enrolled them into an institution of higher academic standards, the Clover Lane Academy.    Reverend William Giles, a well-known teacher from Oxford, ran the Clover Lane Academy. The school's curriculum would have consisted of advanced reading, writing, calculating, and possibly Latin. Charles was an excellent student. His mentor "pronounced" him "to be a boy of capacity " (Forster 11). All references made by Dickens regarding this period in his life are positive and happy ones. Charles was finally on his way to achieving his dreams. But it was a short-lived happiness.    In Victorian England, the quality of the education the children received was directly related to the family finances. After two years, John Dickens was transferred to London and Charles had to leave Clover Lane Academy. Charles hoped for a continuation of his education but poor financial decisions had put a strain on family finances. His family obligations took precedence; the Dickens

perspective :: essays research papers

Perspective I understand perspective as being your own understanding as well as your own interpretation of anything you read or witness. It is also your own insight and beliefs on the hidden nature of things. Perspective is the way you and only you analyze a situation. It can be shared with other’s who share your same perspective, as well as being shared with other’s who have their own insight which will be a total opposite of yours. In 1965 Malcolm X had made a statement â€Å"you have to be careful, very careful, introducing the truth to the Black man who has never previously heard the truth about himself, his own kind, and the white man†¦ The Black brother is so brainwashed that he may even be repelled when he first hears the truth†. Reading Malcolm X’s statement as well as absorbing many of the material I’ve accumulated in class I strongly believe having a perspective is important, but having your own perspective is even more important. When having your own beliefs you won’t be so gullible, as well as easily fooled on what’s being done to you or around you, You’ll have a clear insight and won’t be taken advantage of. Having your own outlook, you could make changes that are more helpful to you and others, rather than harming you and what’s around you. In the past, when the Negroes were uneducated and didn’t know any better they had no perspective and were easily fooled thinking everything was the way it was supposed to be. For instance the white man took the Africans and had them believing in the Christianity religion. This was brainwashing the Africans to believe god has made them inferior to the white man. By having no perspective of there own they believe d this perspective and remained a slave, thinking they was doing the right thing. Now having a clear thought, we don’t let harmful things get passed us without attempting to make correction for the better. For example when the racism was a huge issue, and we were severely mistreated by many whites as well as the Police Department in the late 60’s and 70’s, an organization by the name of the Black Panther Party was formed. They had fought for our rights as well as our right to be treated equal to others. Having a perspective we are now able to serve and make beneficial changes for others as well as ourselves. perspective :: essays research papers Perspective I understand perspective as being your own understanding as well as your own interpretation of anything you read or witness. It is also your own insight and beliefs on the hidden nature of things. Perspective is the way you and only you analyze a situation. It can be shared with other’s who share your same perspective, as well as being shared with other’s who have their own insight which will be a total opposite of yours. In 1965 Malcolm X had made a statement â€Å"you have to be careful, very careful, introducing the truth to the Black man who has never previously heard the truth about himself, his own kind, and the white man†¦ The Black brother is so brainwashed that he may even be repelled when he first hears the truth†. Reading Malcolm X’s statement as well as absorbing many of the material I’ve accumulated in class I strongly believe having a perspective is important, but having your own perspective is even more important. When having your own beliefs you won’t be so gullible, as well as easily fooled on what’s being done to you or around you, You’ll have a clear insight and won’t be taken advantage of. Having your own outlook, you could make changes that are more helpful to you and others, rather than harming you and what’s around you. In the past, when the Negroes were uneducated and didn’t know any better they had no perspective and were easily fooled thinking everything was the way it was supposed to be. For instance the white man took the Africans and had them believing in the Christianity religion. This was brainwashing the Africans to believe god has made them inferior to the white man. By having no perspective of there own they believe d this perspective and remained a slave, thinking they was doing the right thing. Now having a clear thought, we don’t let harmful things get passed us without attempting to make correction for the better. For example when the racism was a huge issue, and we were severely mistreated by many whites as well as the Police Department in the late 60’s and 70’s, an organization by the name of the Black Panther Party was formed. They had fought for our rights as well as our right to be treated equal to others. Having a perspective we are now able to serve and make beneficial changes for others as well as ourselves.

History Of The Internet :: essays research papers

History of The Internet The Internet is a worldwide connection of thousands of computer networks. All of them speak the same language, TCP/IP, the standard protocol. The Internet allows people with access to these networks to share information and knowledge. Resources available on the Internet are chat groups, e-mail, newsgroups, file transfers, and the World Wide Web. The Internet has no centralized authority and it is uncensored. The Internet belongs to everyone and to no one. The Internet is structured in a hierarchy. At the top, each country has at least one public backbone network. Backbone networks are made of high speed lines that connect to other backbones. There are thousands of service providers and networks that connect home or college users to the backbone networks. Today, there are more than fifty-thousand networks in more than one-hundred countries worldwide. However, it all started with one network. In the early 1960's the Cold War was escalating and the United States Government was faced with a problem. How could the country communicate after a nuclear war? The Pentagon's Advanced Research Projects Agency, ARPA, had a solution. They would create a non-centralized network that linked from city to city, and base to base. The network was designed to function when parts of it were destroyed. The network could not have a center because it would be a primary target for enemies. In 1969, ARPANET was created, named after its original Pentagon sponsor. There were four supercomputer stations, called nodes, on this high speed network. ARPANET grew during the 1970's as more and more supercomputer stations were added. The users of ARPANET had changed the high speed network to an electronic post office. Scientists and researchers used ARPANET to collaborate on projects and to trade notes. Eventually, people used ARPANET for leisure activities such as chatting. Soon after, the mailing list was developed. Mailing lists were discussion groups of people who would send their messages via e-mail to a group address, and also receive messages. This could be done twenty-four hours a day. Interestingly, the first group's topic was called Science Fiction Lovers. As ARPANET became larger, a more sophisticated and standard protocol was needed. The protocol would have to link users from other small networks to ARPANET, the main network. The standard protocol invented in 1977 was called TCP/IP. Because of TCP/IP, connecting to ARPANET by any other network was made possible. In 1983, the military portion of ARPANET broke off and formed MILNET. The same year, TCP/IP was made a standard and it was being used by everyone. It linked all parts of the branching complex networks, which soon came to be called

Succubus on Top CHAPTER 11

When I went inside to relay this to Bastien a few minutes later, he took Dana's presence on the proposed shopping trip much better than I had. â€Å"That's fantastic! More time for – â€Å" â€Å"So help me, if you say ‘reconnaissance,' I'm going to smack you. I'm only in this for the clothes.† â€Å"Fair enough. But this is a golden opportunity, and you know it. You can feel her out. Put in a good word for me, maybe. Something. Anything. I need this. But,† he added, â€Å"don't do it at the cost of being†¦detrimental.† â€Å"Give me some credit here, all right? I understand the situation's gravity. I'll help you.† His roguish smile lit up his face, or rather, Mitch's face, which was kind of weird. â€Å"While you're at it, maybe you can brush up on your female bonding.† â€Å"What's that supposed to mean?† â€Å"Do a count of all your closest friends someday. I don't think you like female competition.† I made a face at him just as Jody and Dana showed up. They took me to some astonishing shopping nexus a couple of miles away. I couldn't believe that much retail space could be crammed indoors. We had a few enclosed shopping centers in Seattle, but nothing like this. Browsing stores with Dana was about as horrible as I could have imagined. She eyed scantily dressed teenagers askance and spoke to a black saleswoman like an underling. Still, despite my distaste, I remembered my duty and attempted friendliness. Over and over, I tried to bolster Bastien's reputation. â€Å"He's so into what your group's doing. He'd like to get more involved. Maybe you could come talk to him about it sometime.† Fortunately for â€Å"Mitch,† these comments did elicit a warm response from her. Yes, she'd be happy to give Mitch some one-on-one time. Anything for the cause. How nice that he cared. Truly, he was a smart and compassionate man. Blah, blah, blah. She always enjoyed spending time with him. Yet, despite this fleeting progress, her demeanor remained stiff, and her attention always shifted back to me. She peppered me with all sorts of questions, as if she were specifically probing for some key piece of information. She wanted to know what I did for a living. How close Bastien and I were. Where my â€Å"relationship† with Seth was going. What my take on the CPFV was. What my values – race, sexual orientation, etc. – were. I felt like I was being grilled, but she pushed on in that honeyed voice of hers. Despite her aloofness, she always managed to sound friendly and nonthreatening. I could see why she so enthralled her fans. This isn't just curiosity, I realized. She doesn't trust me. Dana knew something was going on with Bastien and me, and now she was trying to figure it out. That was probably why he wasn't really getting anywhere; she was on to him. True, she probably didn't suspect a covert plan featuring an incubus, but I'm sure she had her share of more mundane enemies. She was on guard for such things, hence her skepticism about our cover stories. Bastien had no idea what he'd gotten us into. So, I worked hard to maintain our innocence, answering her queries as best I could. My usual charm still wasn't working on her here, but I performed better than in previous encounters – except for the questions about Seth. The reality with him was weird enough without having to live another version of it via Tabitha Hunter, and I found myself stuttering and blushing when she brought him up. When Dana left us at the Christian Dior counter of Nordstrom to go look for slips, I nearly sagged in relief. â€Å"What about this one?† Jody held out a tester of pale pink lip gloss that would look great on Tabitha, less so on Georgina. I opened it and studied the color. â€Å"Too light. Besides, it'd probably come off with one sip of something.† She gave me a mischievous grin. â€Å"Or in other activities.† I rewarded her with a look of mock astonishment. It wasn't hard to do; she was full of surprises, it seemed. Fun ones. â€Å"Why, Jody. Here I thought you were a respectable married woman.† â€Å"Are you kidding? Marriage only makes you less respectable. Gives you a lot of time to invent new things.† Grinning back, I swapped the pink lip gloss for a red one. â€Å"Better not let Dana hear you talking like that. I got the third degree about my boyfriend, as it is.† Jody's mirth dimmed a bit, though she held her smile. â€Å"It may feel like the third degree, but she's just curious about you, that's all.† â€Å"Yeah, I guess. No other reason, I suppose.† Best not to mention my theory that Dana suspected Bastien and me of duplicity. To my surprise, Jody looked back down at the eye shadow display, pointedly avoiding my eyes. I was reminded of that day in the yard when I'd had the sense she wanted to tell me something about Dana. Something bad. â€Å"Jody,† I murmured, setting down the lip gloss, â€Å"what is it? What's wrong?† She shook her head. â€Å"Nothing. Forget about it.† Dana returned just then, and the moment was gone. â€Å"They don't have what I need. Let's check Victoria's Secret.† I perked up. That was the best thing I'd heard ail day, aside from another possible insight from Jody. We entered what had to be one of my top five favorite stores. We split up, Jody going to pajamas and Dana looking for some slip that would undoubtedly match that god-awful underwear of hers. As for me, I promptly sought outrisquelingerie sets – once I'd ascertained the other two women were occupied. No way was I having a repeat of the swimsuit incident. Unfortunately, the store had a more outstanding selection than usual, and what I'd intended to be a mere browse turned into a full-fledged mission when I found a few sets I simply had to try on. Dana and Jody were still deeply engrossed with their own wares, so I inconspicuously slipped into the dressing-room line, hoping to be in and out before either of them could investigate what sweet, innocent Tabitha was into. I had just made it to the head of the line when both of them squeezed in next to me. â€Å"What a crowd,† Jody said. â€Å"Mind if we just share your room? They're huge here.† I felt the blood drain from my face as I tried to think up some reason to decline. An idea for a contagious, flesh-eating disease was forming in my mind when the sales associate ushered us into a room that was indeed more than big enough to hold the three of us. Dana only had two skirt slips to try on, and she pulled off her slacks with unconcerned efficiency. I winced upon seeing the granny panties again. Meanwhile, Jody tried on a set of cute flannel pajamas. When I made no moves of any kind, Dana asked me if I was all right. Swallowing, I slowly began removing my clothing. She watched with narrowed eyes. The first bra and panty set I tried on was made of ivory lace decorated with black bows. The second consisted of deep magenta satin and was cut so racily it was barely a few scraps of fabric. When I got to the third one – sheer black mesh decorated with embroidered pink flowers – I wanted to die. Jody and Dana had finished and were waiting for me. Jody's face was pleasant and casual. Dana maintained a look of neutrality, but still radiated disapproval. Great. I could feel myself blushing furiously. Bastien would kill me if he found out I'd not only damaged the wholesome image, I'd completely destroyed it. While Dana stayed stone-faced, Jody cocked her head at me curiously. â€Å"I think you have the wrong bra size, Tabitha. They all look too big.† Of course they were too big. Tabitha Hunter didn't wear a 34C. Georgina Kincaid did. I'd intended to shape-shift to my preferred body when I was alone in here. â€Å"Oh,† I said stupidly, feeling like the whore Dana thought I was. Make that a dumb whore. â€Å"Well. I lost some weight recently.† I tried on the last one – red with glittering silver flowers – and even in the wrong size, it was stunning. â€Å"That looks great,† Jody said, echoing my thoughts. â€Å"I wish I was brave enough to wear something like that.† Dana studied me thoroughly. â€Å"That bra offers no support whatsoever. It has no purpose.† â€Å"She doesn't need the support. Besides, that's the point. It doesn't have to be functional. She just wants to be pretty.† â€Å"Pretty for who? And why? She isn't married.† â€Å"So what? It's none of our business.† Dana glared daggers at the other woman. â€Å"None of our business? Humanity is our business.† She must have read Dickens recently. Icy silence filled our little room. I felt invisible, regardless of the fact that I was half naked. â€Å"Hey guys? Maybe we should go. I'll just take this off.† â€Å"No,† said Jody sternly, eyes locked with Dana's in a battle of wills. â€Å"It's beautiful, Tabitha. You have nothing to be ashamed of.† â€Å"She is beautiful,† concurred Dana smoothly, â€Å"but that outfit would be better suited to a married woman.† Her tone suggested that even that was questionable. I was on the verge of just leaving the room as is, but seeing Jody defy Dana like that kindled something warm and fuzzy inside of me. Bastien would kill me, but I couldn't keep myself from joining the fight. â€Å"You know,† I remarked to Dana, making sure she noticed my blatant examination of my backside, â€Å"if that's the case, then maybe you should try this one on. It's just your color. Kind of Christmasy too. I'd love to see it on you. And I bet Bill would really dig it. â€Å" Dana just stared at me, biting her lip again as she held my challenging gaze. She looked like she might snap back but instead simply pursed those lips together in a hard, straight line. Without another word, she left the dressing room, door banging loudly behind her. Jody stood there uncertainly for a moment. â€Å"It looks great,† she reiterated before following Dana out. By myself, I decided I might as well use the alone time to shape-shift and try on the lingerie in the body they'd been intended for. As expected, they looked pretty hot, so I bought them all. I figured I deserved to salvage something from this disaster. â€Å"So how'd it go?† asked Bastien when Jody and Dana dropped me off at his place later on. â€Å"Fine,† I said, having already stuffed the illicit purchases in my car, lest they raise questions from him. â€Å"Just fine. Well†¦sort of.† I told him about Dana's interrogation and my theory that she might suspect us of something insidious, even if it wasn't what we actually planned. His face grew grimmer and grimmer as I spoke, and I knew he thought I had a point. When I finished, I leaned my head against his shoulder, hating to see him so miserable. â€Å"Hey, don't worry. We'll get through this. I mean, look on the bright side: Dana and I did a lot of bonding today. I think we had a real†¦breakthrough.† I knew doubts still plagued him, but he had cheered up by the time we – no longer as Mitch and Tabitha – arrived back in Seattle later that day. We picked up Seth on the way to Peter's apartment, promptly ensuring that neither man spoke to me for the rest of the car ride. Once again, Jerome chose not to grace us with his presence, but everyone else had turned out for more good food and poker: Peter, Cody, Hugh, and Carter. Carter seemed quietly intrigued by Seth's presence while the others greeted him like a long-lost brother. Considering how often he came up in conversation among us, I think the other immortals regarded him as one of our inner circle already. He stuck close to me for most of the night, but turned out to be a pretty damned good poker player. I think his quiet, placid nature fooled others into forgetting he was there. Amusingly, he seemed pretty pleased about his winnings too, albeit in a mild, Seth sort of way. It made me happy to see this side of him, happier still to know he was enjoying himself with my friends. I didn't really know what side of me he saw that night. My friends sure didn't pull any punches when it came to teasing me about my various idiosyncrasies, and Bastien seemed to think it was Memory Lane Night. He kept telling all sorts of stones from my past, trying to lure me into inside jokes no one else knew about. I stayed away from that path as much as possible without offending him. My priority was still making things work with Seth, and as I held his hand all night and only gave polite smiles to Bastien, I think it became clear to the incubus where my loyalties lay. He didn't seem too thrilled. Halfway through the game, I received a joint call from Mei and Grace. â€Å"Hello, Georgina,† said Grace. â€Å"It's us,† said Mei. â€Å"Did you find out anything?† â€Å"No matches,† Mei told me. â€Å"Oh.† So much for that avenue. â€Å"But that may not mean much,† said Grace. â€Å"We always miss some.† â€Å"And it doesn't really matter,† said Mei. â€Å"They're not a problem if they don't meddle in our affairs.† â€Å"And most don't?† I had run into countless immortals over the years, from all sorts of cultures and powers, but I had not paid much attention to how they operated with each other in a political sense. I had always been content to worry about my job and my job alone, safe in the knowledge that the authorities I answered to wielded enough power to deal with anyone else. â€Å"Most don't,† the demonesses agreed in unison. The poker players regarded me curiously when I hung up. â€Å"Who was that?† asked Peter. â€Å"Grace and Mei.† Hugh made a face. â€Å"Ack. The crazy-bitch-dyke twins.† â€Å"Hey, that's uncalled for. They've been very helpful.† â€Å"Yeah? Well, just wait,† he warned. â€Å"Next thing you know, they'll be wanting to cut your hair and dress you in black too. â€Å" Cody smiled at my outrage. â€Å"Why do I get the feeling there's another illicit Georgina investigation afoot?† â€Å"It's not so illicit.† â€Å"Illicit enough,† remarked Bastien with a yawn. â€Å"You and your mortals.† He pocketed the money he had left, downed his bourbon, and thanked Peter again for another fabulous evening. â€Å"Leaving so soon?† I asked. â€Å"Off to find fairer company. No offense to you, Fleur .†He leaned down to me and brushed a kiss over my lips that lingered a breath too long for friendship. â€Å"Good night.† His departure spurred a new round of the Bastien Fan Club as they all speculated what sexual escapade he was about to embark on now. â€Å"How does he do it?† asked Peter. â€Å"I wish I was that good,† added Cody. â€Å"Hey,† I complained, â€Å"pursuing women isn't any harder than men. Sometimes it's easier. â€Å" â€Å"That guy's amazing.† Hugh acted like I hadn't even spoken. † Going after a new one tonight when he's still sporting a glow that can't even be a day old. I wish I got lucky that often.† Seth didn't like to speak much with this group – or any group for that matter – but like my other friends, he was in awe of the incubus. Hugh's comment especially piqued his interest. â€Å"What do you mean by ‘glow?' Like an afterglow?† Hugh grinned at him. â€Å"Sort of†¦you must know what I'm talking about. The post-sex thing? The glamour?† â€Å"Whose deal is it?† I asked sharply, not liking the conversation's new direction. Seth turned thoughtful. â€Å"Well, then it is like an afterglow. I mean, everyone sort of has something like that after sex.† â€Å"Yes, but it's different for an incubus or a succubus,† explained Peter professorially. Unless I was mistaken, he was starting to pick up a British accent. Too much exposure to Bastien. â€Å"In their case, it's more of a literal glow – to other immortals at least. When they've had sex, they take that person's life. Life force is alluring. To an immortal, a just-laid incubus or succubus will almost – â€Å" â€Å"Glitter,† suggested Cody. â€Å"Or sparkle. And yet†¦not. It's kind of hard to explain. Hasn't Georgina told you all this?† â€Å"Not this,† said Seth. â€Å"So I†¦er, mortals don't see it?† â€Å"Are we playing or not?† I asked impatiently, raising my voice. Carter caught my eye. â€Å"Not like we do,† continued Peter. â€Å"But they – you – feel it. Or maybe ‘sense' is a better word. It pulls you in. It's very attractive. â€Å" I sunk lower into my seat, trying to decide if anyone would notice if I suddenly turned invisible. I might as well have been since no one was listening to my protests anyway. â€Å"You must have noticed it,† pointed out Hugh, taking a swig of whiskey. â€Å"There must be days when you see Georgina and practically can't control yourself because of how hot she is. You can only stare. Of course, it's probably hard to tell the difference since she's always so hot, huh?† Everyone except Carter, Seth, and I laughed. I knew the imp had meant that last part as a compliment, but I wanted to throw my gimlet glass at him nonetheless. The hilarity soon died down, and we returned to cards. But the damage was done. Seth and I hardly spoke for the rest of the night, not that anyone – save Carter, I suspected – even noticed. When Seth and I left, I knew something bad was coming. I dropped him off at his place, and he invited me inside to eat Rocky Road ice cream. He was a big ice cream fan. I should have just turned around and left, but Rocky Road has supernatural powers. Plus, I remembered what Seth and I had discussed after the recent make-out session in bed – how we had to communicate about issues, rather than ignore them. I still believed that to be true, but theory and practice were two completely different things. He made up two bowls for us, and we ate the ice cream in silence for a while. When he finished, Seth played with his spoon, not looking at me. â€Å"So,† he asked, â€Å"is it true?† â€Å"Is what true?† Like I didn't know. â€Å"Come on, don't make me spell it out,† he said gently. â€Å"I just want to hear your version, that's all.† I opened my mouth to speak, to find some way to neutralize all this, but my tongue felt thick and useless. No coherent words formed. â€Å"Is it true?† repeated Seth. When I still didn't answer, he continued, â€Å"When I see you sometimes†¦when I see you – like that one night – and can barely even breathe because you are so beautiful†¦so beautiful that I can do nothing but act like an idiot, does that mean that you've just†¦slept with someone? But, of course, I don't actually mean, um, ‘sleep'†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Damn, this communication thing really did suck.